Fish oil

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See also: Omega-3 acid ethyl esters
Fish oil capsules

Fish oil is oil derived from the tissues of oily fish. Fish oils contain the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), precursors of certain eicosanoids that are known to reduce inflammation in the body[1][2] and improve hypertriglyceridemia. There has been a great deal of controversy in recent years about the role of fish oil in cardiovascular disease, with recent meta-analyses reaching different conclusions about its potential impact. The most promising evidence supports supplementation for prevention of cardiac death.[3]

Fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids have also been studied in a wide variety of other conditions such as clinical depression,[4][5] anxiety,[6][7][8] cancer, and macular degeneration, yet their benefit in these conditions has also not been verified.[9]

The fish used as sources do not actually produce omega-3 fatty acids, but instead accumulate them by consuming either microalgae or prey fish that have accumulated omega-3 fatty acids. Fatty predatory fish like sharks, swordfish, tilefish, and albacore tuna may be high in omega-3 fatty acids, but due to their position at the top of the food chain, these species may also accumulate toxic substances through biomagnification. For this reason, the United States Environmental Protection Agency recommends limiting consumption (especially for women of childbearing age) of certain (predatory) fish species (e.g. albacore tuna, shark, king mackerel, tilefish and swordfish) due to high levels of the toxic contaminant mercury. Dioxin, PCBs and chlordane are also present.[10] Fish is rich in protein and other vitamins aquaculture feed. More than 50 percent of the world's fish oil used in aquaculture feed is fed to farmed salmon.[11]

Marine and freshwater fish oil vary in contents of arachidonic acid, EPA and DHA.[12] The various species range from lean to fatty and their oil content in the tissues has been shown to vary from 0.7% to 15.5%.[13] They also differ in their effects on organ lipids.[12] Studies have revealed that there is no relation between total fish intake or estimated omega−3 fatty acid intake from all fish, and serum omega−3 fatty acid concentrations.[14] Only fatty fish intake, particularly salmonid, and estimated EPA + DHA intake from fatty fish has been observed to be significantly associated with increase in serum EPA + DHA.[14]

As of 2019, the US Food and Drug Administration has approved four fish oil-based prescription drugs, such as Lovaza, Omtryg (both omega-3 acid ethyl esters), Vascepa (ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid), and Epanova (omega-3 carboxylic acids).[15]

Uses[edit]

Often marketed and sold for consumption as part of the diet or in dietary supplements in contemporary societies, fish oils also have found roles in external use, as emollients[16] or as general ointments[17] as well as in body art,[18] or for alleged insulation against cold temperatures.[19]

Fish oil rendering in Port Dover, Ontario, 1918

Nutritional details[edit]

The most widely available dietary source of EPA and DHA is cold-water oily fish, such as salmon, herring, mackerel, anchovies, and sardines. Oils from these fish have a profile of around seven times as much omega-3 oils as omega-6 oils. Other oily fish, such as tuna, also contain omega-3 in somewhat lesser amounts. Although fish is a dietary source of omega-3 oils, fish do not synthesize them; they obtain them from the algae (microalgae in particular) or plankton in their diets.[20]

Grams of omega-3 fatty acids per 3oz (85g) serving of popular fish.[21][22]
Common name grams
Herring, sardines 1.3–2
Spanish mackerel, Atlantic, Pacific 1.1–1.7
Salmon 1.1–1.9
Halibut 0.60–1.12
Tuna 0.21–1.1
Swordfish 0.97
Greenshell/lipped mussels 0.95[23]
Tilefish 0.9
Tuna (canned, light) 0.17–0.24
Pollock 0.45
Cod 0.15–0.24
Catfish 0.22–0.3
Flounder 0.48
Grouper 0.23
Mahi mahi 0.13
Orange roughy 0.028
Red snapper 0.29
Shark 0.83
King mackerel 0.36
Hoki (blue grenadier) 0.41
Silver gemfish 0.40
Blue eye cod 0.31
Sydney rock oyster 0.30
Tuna, canned 0.23
Snapper 0.22
Barramundi, saltwater 0.100
Giant tiger prawn 0.100

For comparison, note the omega-3 levels in some common non-fish foods:

Grams of omega-3 fatty acids per 3oz (85g) serving of common non-fish foods.[21]
Name grams
Flaxseeds 19.55
Chia seeds 14.8
Hemp seeds 7.4
Walnut 1.7
Soybean 1.1
Butter 0.27
Eggs, large regular 0.109[23]
Lean red meat 0.031
Turkey 0.030
Cereals, rice, pasta, etc. 0.00
Fruit 0.00
Milk, regular 0.00
Bread, regular 0.00
Vegetables 0.00

Health effects[edit]

Kepler Cod Liver Oil with Malt Extract

Various recommendations[edit]

In a 2009 letter on a pending revision to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, the American Heart Association recommended 250–500 mg/day of EPA and DHA.[24] The Guidelines were revised again for 2015-2020; included is a recommendation that adults consume at least eight ounces of a variety of types of fish per week, equating to at least 250 mg/day of EPA + DHA.[citation needed] The Food and Drug Administration recommends not exceeding 3 grams per day of EPA + DHA from all sources, with no more than 2 grams per day from dietary supplements.[25]

Prostate cancer[edit]

The effect of fish oil consumption on prostate cancer is controversial,[26][27] as one study showed decreased risk with higher blood levels of DPA, whereas another reported increased risk of more aggressive prostate cancer with higher blood levels of combined EPA and DHA.[28] Some evidence indicated an association between high blood levels of omega-3 fatty acids and an increased prostate cancer risk.[29]

Cardiovascular[edit]

There has been a great deal of controversy in recent years about the role of fish oil in cardiovascular disease, with recent meta-analyses reaching different conclusions about its potential impact.[3] Multiple evaluations suggest fish oil has little or no reduction in cardiovascular mortality, in distinction to earlier observational data, though there appears to be a small reduction in the incidence of actual cardiac events and strokes with its use.[30][31][32][33] In 2007, the American Heart Association had recommended the consumption of 1 gram of fish oil daily, preferably by eating fish, for patients with coronary artery disease, but cautioned pregnant and nursing women to avoid eating fish with high potential for mercury contaminants including mackerel, shark, and swordfish.[34] (Optimal dosage was related to body weight.)

The US National Institutes of Health lists three conditions for which fish oil and other omega-3 sources are most highly recommended: hypertriglyceridemia (high triglyceride level), preventing secondary cardiovascular disease, and hypertension (high blood pressure). It then lists 27 other conditions for which there is less evidence. It also lists possible safety concerns: "Intake of 3 grams per day or greater of omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, although there is little evidence of significant bleeding risk at lower doses. Very large intakes of fish oil/omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of hemorrhagic (bleeding) stroke."[9]

There is also some evidence that fish oil may have a beneficial effect on certain abnormal heart rhythms.[35][36] However, a 2012 meta-analysis found no such significant benefit.[37]

A 2008 meta-study by the Canadian Medical Association Journal found fish oil supplementation did not demonstrate any preventative benefit to cardiac patients with ventricular arrhythmias.[38] A 2012 meta-analysis published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, covering 20 studies and 68,680 patients, found that Omega-3 Fatty Acid supplementation did not reduce the chance of death, cardiac death, heart attack or stroke.[39] A 2018 meta-analysis of randomized trials with a total of 77,000 participants published in JAMA found a 3% reduction in the relative risk for those who supplemented fish oil, however, this effect was not statistically significant, but suggested a very minor benefit.[40]

In 2018, Cochrane conducted their own meta-analysis with a total of 79 studies and 112,000 participants and found a 5% reduction in the relative risk for cardiovascular mortality and a 7% reduction in the relative risk for coronary heart disease for those who supplemented with Omega-3s.[41]

Hypertension[edit]

There have been some human trials that have concluded that consuming omega-3 fatty acids slightly reduces blood pressure (DHA could be more effective than EPA). It is important to note that because omega-3 fatty acids can increase the risk of bleeding, a qualified healthcare provider should be consulted before supplementing with fish oil.[42]

Mental health[edit]

A 2008 Cochrane systematic review found that limited data is available. In the one eligible study, omega-3s were an effective adjunctive therapy for depressed but not manic symptoms in bipolar disorder. The authors found an "acute need" for more randomised controlled trials.[43]

A 2009 metastudy found that patients taking omega-3 supplements with a higher EPA:DHA ratio experienced fewer depressive symptoms. The studies provided evidence that EPA may be more efficacious than DHA in treating depression. However, this metastudy concluded that due to the identified limitations of the included studies, larger, randomized trials are needed to confirm these findings.[44]

In a 2011 meta-analysis of PubMed articles about fish oil and depression from 1965 to 2010, researchers found that "nearly all of the treatment efficacy observed in the published literature may be attributable to publication bias."[45]

A 2014 meta-analysis of eleven trials conducted respectively on patients with a DSM-defined diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) and of eight trials with patients with depressive symptomatology but no diagnosis of MDD demonstrated significant clinical benefit of omega-3 PUFA treatment compared to placebo. The study concluded that: "The use of omega-3 PUFA is effective in patients with diagnosis of MDD and on depressive patients without diagnosis of MDD."[46]

Alzheimer's disease[edit]

A Cochrane meta-analysis published in June 2012 found no significant protective effect for cognitive decline for those aged 60 and over and who started taking fatty acids after this age. A co-author of the study said to Time, "Our analysis suggests that there is currently no evidence that omega-3 fatty acid supplements provide a benefit for memory or concentration in later life".[47]

Psoriasis[edit]

Diets supplemented with cod liver oil have shown beneficial effects on psoriasis.[48]

Pregnancy[edit]

Some studies reported better psychomotor development at 30 months of age in infants whose mothers received fish oil supplements for the first four months of lactation.[49] In addition, five-year-old children whose mothers received modest algae based docosahexaenoic acid supplementation for the first 4 months of breastfeeding performed better on a test of sustained attention. This suggests that docosahexaenoic acid intake during early infancy confers long-term benefits on specific aspects of neurodevelopment.[49]

In addition, provision of fish oil during pregnancy may reduce an infant’s sensitization to common food allergens and reduce the prevalence and severity of certain skin diseases in the first year of life. This effect may persist until adolescence with a reduction in prevalence and/or severity of eczema, hay fever and asthma.[50]

Crohn's disease[edit]

A 2014 Cochrane review found that, based on two large studies, fish oil supplements did not appear to be effective for maintenance of remission in Crohn's disease.[51]

Supplement quality and concerns[edit]

Fish oil is a commonly used dietary supplement, with sales in the U.S. alone reaching $976 million in 2009.[52] Problems of quality have been identified in periodic tests by independent researchers of marketed supplements containing fish oil and other marine oils. These problems include contamination, inaccurate listing of EPA and DHA levels, spoilage and formulation issues.[53]

Contamination[edit]

Fish can accumulate toxins such as mercury, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and spoiled fish oil may produce peroxides.[54] There appears to be little risk of contamination by microorganisms, proteins, lysophospholipids, cholesterol, and trans-fats.[55]

Dioxins and PCBs[edit]

Dioxins and PCBs may be carcinogenic at low levels of exposure over time. These substances are identified and measured in one of two categories, dioxin-like PCBs and total PCBs. While the U.S. FDA has not set a limit for PCBs in supplements, the Global Organization for EPA and DHA (GOED) has established a guideline allowing for no more than 3 picograms of dioxin-like PCBs per gram of fish oil. In 2012, samples from 35 fish oil supplements were tested for PCBs. Trace amounts of PCBs were found in all samples, and two samples exceeded the GOED‘s limit.[56] Although trace amounts of PCBs contribute to overall PCB exposure, Consumerlab.com claims the amounts reported by tests it ordered on fish oil supplements are far below those found in a single typical serving of fish.[56]

Spoilage[edit]

Peroxides can be produced when fish oil spoils. A study commissioned by the government of Norway concluded there would be some health concern related to the regular consumption of oxidized (rancid) fish/marine oils, particularly in regards to the gastrointestinal tract, but there is not enough data to determine the risk. The amount of spoilage and contamination in a supplement depends on the raw materials and processes of extraction, refining, concentration, encapsulation, storage and transportation.[55] ConsumerLab.com reports in its review that it found spoilage in test reports it ordered on some fish oil supplement products.[56]

EPA and DHA content[edit]

According to ConsumerLab.com tests, the concentrations of EPA and DHA in supplements can vary from between 8 and 80% fish oil content. The concentration depends on the source of the omega-3s, how the oil is processed, and the amounts of other ingredients included in the supplement.[56] A 2012 report claims 4 of 35 fish oil supplements it covered contained less[quantify] EPA or DHA than was claimed on the label, and 3 of 35 contained more.[quantify][56] A ConsumerLab.com publication in 2010 claims 3 of 24 fish oil supplements it covered contained less[quantify] EPA and/or DHA than was claimed on the label.[52] However, the bioavailability of EPA and DHA from both capsular and emulsified fish oils has been shown to be high.[57]

Formulation[edit]

Fish oil supplements are available as liquids or capsules. Some capsules are enteric-coated to pass through the stomach before dissolving in the small intestine, thus helping prevent indigestion and "fish burps". Poorly manufactured enteric-coated products have the potential to release ingredients too early. ConsumerLab.com, a for-profit supplement testing company, reported that 1 of the 24 enteric-coated fish oil supplements it evaluated released ingredients prematurely.[52]

Prescription fish oil[edit]

See also: Omega-3 acid ethyl esters and Fish oil (medical use)

Fish oil preparations that are only available with a doctor's prescription undergo the same US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulatory requirements as other prescription pharmaceuticals, with regard to both efficacy and safety.[58] The prescription fish oil drugs are not similar to over-the-counter fish oil supplements. They are not be confused with each other.[59] Prescription fish oil is considered a safe and effective option to reduce triglycerides. There are various prescription fish oil products that have been approved and permitted by the FDA for increasing triglyceride levels. Prescription fish oil products having DHA raise up the LDL-C levels to reduce triglycerides, like fibrates.[60] Even the heart experts advise that prescription fish oil helps in decreasing additional levels of blood fats. Prescription fish oils might only help when triglycerides reaches a specific upper level.[61] Prescription fish oil pills, capsules and tablets have more omega-3 fatty acids than those which are non-prescribed. The FDA regularly monitor those drugs for standards, quality and safety.[62]

As of 2019, there are four fish oil-based prescription drugs approved in the United States for the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia,[15] namely:

  1. Epanova (omega-3 carboxylic acids) was approved on 23 April 2014.<ef>"Epanova (omega-3-carboxylic acids) capsules, for oral use". DailyMed. 8 September 2014. Retrieved 12 May 2020.</ref>[63][64] Clinical trial on mixed dyslipidaemia (hypertriglyceridemia with hypocholesterolemia) started in 2014[65] found that it has no medical benefits, and the clinical trial was called of on 13 January 2019.[66]
  2. Lovaza (omega-3 acid ethyl esters) was approved on 10 November 2004.[67][68][69][70]
  3. Omtryg (omega-3 acid ethyl esters) was approved on 23 April 2014.[71][72][73]
  4. Vascepa (ethyl eicosapentaenoic acid) was approved on 26 July 2012.[74][75][76] On 13 December 2019, the FDA also approved it as the first drug specifically "to reduce cardiovascular risk among patients with elevated triglyceride levels."[77]

There are some fish-oil products approved for parenteral nutrition:

  1. Omegaven, approved in July 2018, is indicated as a source of calories and fatty acids in children with parenteral nutrition-associated cholestasis (PNAC).[78][79][80]
  2. Smoflipid, approved in July 2016, is indicated in adults as a source of calories and essential fatty acids for parenteral nutrition when oral or enteral nutrition is not possible, insufficient, or contraindicated.[81][82][83]

Dangers[edit]

A 2013 review concluded that the potential for adverse events amongst older adults taking fish oil "appear mild–moderate at worst and are unlikely to be of clinical significance".[84]

Maximum intake[edit]

The FDA recommends that consumers do not exceed more than three grams per day of EPA and DHA combined, with no more than 2 grams from a dietary supplement.[85] This is not the same as 3000 mg of fish oil. A 1000 mg pill typically has only 300 mg of omega-3; 10 such pills would equal 3000 mg of omega-3. According to the European Food Safety Authority's (EFSA) Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies, supplementation of 5 grams of EPA and DHA combined does not pose a safety concern for adults.[86] A 1987 study found that healthy Greenlandic Inuit had an average intake of 5.7 grams of omega-3 EPA per day which had many effects including prolonged bleeding times, i.e., slower blood clotting.[87]

Vitamins[edit]

The liver and liver products (such as cod liver oil) of fish and many animals (such as seals and whales) contain omega-3, but also the active form of vitamin A. At high levels, this form of the vitamin can be dangerous (Hypervitaminosis A).[88]

Toxic pollutants[edit]

Consumers of oily fish should be aware of the potential presence of heavy metals and fat-soluble pollutants like PCBs and dioxins, which are known to accumulate up the food chain. After extensive review, researchers from Harvard's School of Public Health in the Journal of the American Medical Association (2006) reported that the benefits of fish intake generally far outweigh the potential risks.

Fish oil supplements came under scrutiny in 2006, when the Food Standards Agency in the UK and the Food Safety Authority of Ireland reported PCB levels that exceeded the European maximum limits in several fish oil brands,[89][90] which required temporary withdrawal of these brands. To address the concern over contaminated fish oil supplements, the International Fish Oil Standards (IFOS) Program, a third-party testing and accreditation program for fish oil products, was created by Nutrasource Diagnostics Inc. in Guelph, Ontario, Canada.[91]

A March 2010 lawsuit filed by a California environmental group claimed that eight brands of fish oil supplements contained excessive levels of PCB's, including CVS/pharmacy, Nature Made, Rite Aid, GNC, Solgar, Twinlab, Now Health, Omega Protein and Pharmavite. The majority of these products were either cod liver or shark liver oils. Those participating in the lawsuit claim that because the liver is the major filtering and detoxifying organ, PCB content may be higher in liver-based oils than in fish oil produced from the processing of whole fish.[92][93]

An analysis based on data from the Norwegian Women and Cancer Study (NOWAC) with regards to the dangers of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in cod liver came to the conclusion that "in Norwegian women, fish liver consumption was not associated with an increased cancer risk in breast, uterus, or colon. In contrast, a decreased risk for total cancer was found."[94]

A report by the Harvard Medical School studied five popular brands of fish oil, including Nordic Ultimate, Kirkland and CVS. They found that the brands had "negligible amounts of mercury, suggesting either that mercury is removed during the manufacturing of purified fish oil or that the fish sources used in these commercial preparations are relatively mercury-free".[95]

Microalgae oil is a vegetarian alternative to fish oil. Supplements produced from microalgae oil provide a balance of omega-3 fatty acids similar to fish oil, with a lower risk of pollutant exposure.[96]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

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  2. ^ Cleland, Leslieg; James, Michaelj; Proudman, Susannam (2006). "Fish oil: What the prescriber needs to know". Arthritis Research & Therapy. 8 (1): 679–81. doi:10.1186/ar1876. PMC 1526555. PMID 16542466.
  3. ^ a b Maki, KC; Dicklin, MR (4 July 2018). "Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation and Cardiovascular Disease Risk: Glass Half Full or Time to Nail the Coffin Shut?". Nutrients. 10 (7): 864. doi:10.3390/nu10070864. PMC 6073248. PMID 29973554.
  4. ^ Su, Kuan-Pin; Huang, Shih-Yi; Chiu, Chih-Chiang; Shen, Winston W. (2003). "Omega-3 fatty acids in major depressive disorder". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 13 (4): 267–71. doi:10.1016/S0924-977X(03)00032-4. PMID 12888186.
  5. ^ Naliwaiko, K.; Araújo, R.L.F.; Da Fonseca, R.V.; Castilho, J.C.; Andreatini, R.; Bellissimo, M.I.; Oliveira, B.H.; Martins, E.F.; Curi, R.; Fernandes, L.C.; Ferraz, A.C. (2004). "Effects of Fish Oil on the Central Nervous System: A New Potential Antidepressant?". Nutritional Neuroscience. 7 (2): 91–99. doi:10.1080/10284150410001704525. PMID 15279495.
  6. ^ Green, Pnina; Hermesh, Haggai; Monselise, Assaf; Marom, Sofi; Presburger, Gadi; Weizman, Abraham (2006). "Red cell membrane omega-3 fatty acids are decreased in nondepressed patients with social anxiety disorder". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 16 (2): 107–13. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2005.07.005. PMID 16243493.
  7. ^ Yehuda, Shlomo; Rabinovitz, Sharon; Mostofsky, David I. (2005). "Mixture of essential fatty acids lowers test anxiety". Nutritional Neuroscience. 8 (4): 265–67. doi:10.1080/10284150500445795. PMID 16491653.
  8. ^ Nemets, B.; Stahl, Z; Belmaker, RH (2002). "Addition of Omega-3 Fatty Acid to Maintenance Medication Treatment for Recurrent Unipolar Depressive Disorder". American Journal of Psychiatry. 159 (3): 477–79. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.3.477. PMID 11870016.
  9. ^ a b NIH Medline Plus (August 2015). "Omega-3 Supplements: In Depth". Retrieved 13 October 2017.
  10. ^ Venus Nandi (9 February 2020). "Best fish to eat". Retrieved 9 February 2020.
  11. ^ FAO: World Review of Fisheries and Aquaculture 2008: Highlights of Special Studies|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Rome.
  12. ^ a b Innis, Sheila M.; Rioux, France M.; Auestad, Nancy; Ackman, Robert G. (1995). "Marine and freshwater fish oil varying in arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids differ in their effects on organ lipids and fatty acids in growing rats". The Journal of Nutrition. 125 (9): 2286–93. doi:10.1093/jn/125.9.2286. PMID 7666244.
  13. ^ Gruger, E. H.; Nelson, R. W.; Stansby, M. E. (1 October 1964). "Fatty acid composition of oils from 21 species of marine fish, freshwater fish and shellfish". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 41 (10): 662–67. doi:10.1007/BF02661403.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ a b Philibert, A; Vanier, C; Abdelouahab, N; Chan, HM; Mergler, D (December 2006). "Fish intake and serum fatty acid profiles from freshwater fish". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 84 (6): 1299–307. doi:10.1093/ajcn/84.6.1299. PMID 17158409.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ a b Skulas-Ray, Ann C.; Wilson, Peter W.F.; Harris, William S.; Brinton, Eliot A.; Kris-Etherton, Penny M.; Richter, Chesney K.; Jacobson, Terry A.; Engler, Mary B.; et al. (2019). "Omega-3 Fatty Acids for the Management of Hypertriglyceridemia: A Science Advisory From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 140 (12): e673–e691. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000709. PMID 31422671.
  16. ^ Talakoub, Lily; Neuhaus, Isaac M.; Yu, Siegrid S. (2008). "Chapter 2: Cosmoceuticals". In Alam, Murad; Gladstone, Hayes B.; Tung, Rebecca (eds.). Cosmetic Dermatology. Requisites in dermatology. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 9. ISBN 9780702031434. Retrieved 23 October 2014. Other oils used as emollients include fish oil, petrolatum, shea butter, and sunflower seed oil.
  17. ^ Burch, Ernest S. (2006). Social Life in Northwest Alaska: The Structure of Iñupiaq Eskimo Nations. University of Alaska Press. p. 278. ISBN 9781889963921. Retrieved 23 October 2014. Oil was also used externally as an ointment to heal cold sores, cuts, insect bites, frostbite, rashes - in short, skin problems of all kinds. Duck or goose body-cavity fat was apparently as useful as seal or fish oil in dealing with skin problems.
  18. ^ Heartney, Eleanor (2007). "Zhang Huan: Becoming the Body". Zhang Huan: Altered States. Charta and Asia Society. ISBN 978-8881586417. Retrieved 23 October 2014. This becomes abundantly clear in the work of Chinese body artist Zhang Huan. In the course of his career, Zhang Huan has subjected himself to painful trials: sitting motionless for hours in an outhouse covered in honey and fish oil while flies crawled over his body [...].
  19. ^ Ilse Schreiber: Die Schwestern aus Memel (1936), quoted, and extract translated in: Strzelczyk, Florentine (2014). "16: 'Fighting against Manitou': German Identity and Ilse Schreiber's Canada Novels Die Schwestern aus Memel (1936) and Die Flucht in Paradies (1939)". In McFarland, Rob; James, Michelle Stott (eds.). Sophie Discovers Amerika: German-Speaking Women Write the New World. Studies in German Literature Linguistics and Culture. 148. Boydell & Brewer. p. 207. ISBN 9781571135865. Hoffentlich zogen die Eltern in eine Gegend, wo es recht viele Eingeborene gab. Indianer, die nur von Jagd und Fischfang leben. Ach, und womöglich Eskimos, die sich mit Tran einschmieren, um sich gegen die Kälte zu schützen und rohes Fleisch essen [...]. [She hoped her parents would move to an area where there were many aboriginals. Indians who live solely by hunting and fishing. Oh, and if possible Eskimos who smear themselves with fish oil to protect themselves from the cold, and who eat raw meat.]
  20. ^ Falk-Petersen, S.; Sargent, J. R.; Henderson, J.; Hegseth, E. N.; Hop, H.; Okolodkov, Y. B. (1998). "Lipids and fatty acids in ice algae and phytoplankton from the Marginal Ice Zone in the Barents Sea". Polar Biology. 20 (1): 41–47. doi:10.1007/s003000050274. INIST:2356641.
  21. ^ a b "Fish, Levels of Mercury and Omega-3 Fatty Acids". American Heart Association. Archived from the original on 9 July 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2010.
  22. ^ Kris-Etherton, Penny M.; William S. Harris, Lawrence J. Appel (2002). "Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease". Circulation. 106 (21): 2747–57. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.0000038493.65177.94. PMID 12438303.
  23. ^ a b "Omega-3 Centre". Omega-3 sources. Omega-3 Centre. Archived from the original on 18 July 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2008.
  24. ^ "Re: 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans" (PDF). Jan 2009. American Heart Association.
  25. ^ "2004 – FDA Announces Qualified Health Claims for Omega-3 Fatty Acids". www.fda.gov. Retrieved 25 May 2016.
  26. ^ Heinze, VM; Actis, AB (February 2012). "Dietary conjugated linoleic acid and long-chain n-3 fatty acids in mammary and prostate cancer protection: a review". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 63 (1): 66–78. doi:10.3109/09637486.2011.598849. PMID 21762028.
  27. ^ Crowe, Francesca L.; Appleby, Paul N.; Travis, Ruth C.; Barnett, Matt; Brasky, Theodore M.; Bueno-de-Mesquita, H. Bas; Chajes, Veronique; Chavarro, Jorge E.; Chirlaque, Maria-Dolores (1 September 2014). "Circulating fatty acids and prostate cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis of prospective studies". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 106 (9): dju240. doi:10.1093/jnci/dju240. ISSN 1460-2105. PMC 4188122. PMID 25210201.
  28. ^ Chua, Michael E.; Sio, Maria Christina D.; Sorongon, Mishell C.; Morales Jr, Marcelino L. Jr. (May–June 2013). "The relevance of serum levels of long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis". Canadian Urological Association Journal. 7 (5–6): E333–43. doi:10.5489/cuaj.1056. PMC 3668400. PMID 23766835.
  29. ^ Brasky TM, Darke AK, Song X, et al. (August 2013). "Plasma phospholipid fatty acids and prostate cancer risk in the SELECT trial". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 105 (15): 1132–41. doi:10.1093/jnci/djt174. PMC 3735464. PMID 23843441.
  30. ^ Abdelhamid, Asmaa S.; Brown, Tracey J.; Brainard, Julii S.; Biswas, Priti; Thorpe, Gabrielle C.; Moore, Helen J.; Deane, Katherine Ho; Summerbell, Carolyn D.; Worthington, Helen V.; Song, Fujian; Hooper, Lee (29 February 2020). "Omega-3 fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 3: CD003177. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003177.pub5. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 7049091. PMID 32114706.
  31. ^ Abdelhamid, AS; Martin, N; Bridges, C; Brainard, JS; Wang, X; Brown, TJ; Hanson, S; Jimoh, OF; Ajabnoor, SM; Deane, KH; Song, F; Hooper, L (November 2018). "Polyunsaturated fatty acids for the primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 11: CD012345. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012345.pub3. PMC 6517012. PMID 30484282.
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References[edit]

External links[edit]

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